1775-1945

War	Dates	History
US War of Independence	1775 - 1783	American settlers - Britain. Insurrection of thirteen of Britain's N American colonies. Began as civil war but America was later joined by France (1778), Spain (1779), and Netherlands (1780). America rejected Britain's offer of peace in the civil war conflicts and declared independence. Britain ultimately defeated.
French Revolutionary Wars	1792 - 1802	A series of campaigns between France and neighboring European states hostile to the Revolution and to French hegemony, merging ultimately with the Napoleonic Wars.
Napoleonic Wars	1800 - 1815	Fought to preserve French hegemony in Europe. Initially a guarantee for political, social, and economic changes of the Revolution, but increasingly became manifestation of Napoleon's territorial ambitions. War began with Napoleon's destruction of the Second Coalition (1800). Britain resumed hostilities (1803) prompting Napoleon to prepare for invasion and encouraging the formation of a Third Coalition. Britain retained naval superiority but Napoleon established territorial domination with the invasion of Spain (1808) and Russia (1812). French finally overwhelmed by rhe Fourth Coalition and war ended with the Battle of Waterloo.
Peninsular War	1808 - 1814	France - Britain. Struggle for the Iberian peninsula which began as Spanish revolt against imposition of Napoleon's brother, Joseph, as King of Spain, but developed into bitter conflict, with British forces under Wellington liberating Spain (1811). Following Napoleon's Moscow campaign (1812) French resources were overextended, enabling Wellington's army to invade SW France (1813-14).
Greek War of Independence	1821 - 1828	Greece - Turkey. Greece fought alone until 1825 when her cause was seconded by Britain, Russia, and later France. Turks defeated and Greece's independence guaranteed by her allies.
Crimean War	1853 - 1856	Fought in Crimean Peninsula by Britain and France against Russia. Origins lay in the Russian successes against the Turks in the Black Sea area, and the British and French desire to prevent further Russian expansion westward which threatened the Mediterranean and overland routes to India. Major battles were fought at the River Alma (Sep 1854), Balaclava (1854), and Inkermann (Nov 1854). Fall of Russian fortress as Sebastopol (Sep 1855) led to negotiations for peace. Finally agreed in Paris (1856) that Russia would cede South Bessarabia to Moldavia.
American Civil War	1861 - 1865	Conflict between Republicans and Confederates. Dealt with two great issues: then nature of the Federal Union and the relative power of the states and central government, and the existence of Black slavery. When Lincoln and the Republican Party's election demonstrated that the South could no longer expect to control the high offices of state, eleven Southern states withdrew from the Union and established the Confederate States of America. War broke out (12 Apr 1861) when the Southern batteries opened fire on a Union emplacement in the harbour of Charlottesville. Lincoln at first defined the issue as preservation of the Union, without any reference to slavery, but he broadened the war aims (Jan 1861) proclaiming the emancipation of all slaves in areas then under arms against the government. The winning strategy began in 1863 when the Republican General Grant won control of the whole Mississippi valley, isolating the western Confederate states from the rest. After several fierce battles (Gettysburg, Fredericksburg, and the Chattanooga campaign) the South's position became untenable and General Lee, leader of the Confederate forces, abandoned the Confederate capital in Apr 1865 and finally capitulated at Appomattox Court House. The last surrender took place on May 26.
Franco - Prussian War	1870	Marked the end of French hegemony in Europe and the foundation of a German empire.In Napoleon III's ambition to conquer Prussia, Bismarck saw an opportunity to bring the S German states into unit with the Prussian-led N German states and build a strong German empire. Conflict was sparked off by disputed candidature for the French throne. The Ems Telegram, sent by Wilhelm I of Prussia refusing the French conditions, succeeded in provoking the French to declare war five days later. After only four weeks the French found themselves trapped at Metz. Main French army tried to relieve them but were surrounded and trapped by Germans at Sedan. French army, with Napoleon III and Macmahon, surrendered. French resistance continued with the new government and the Germans then began to besiege Paris. Paris surrendered Jan 1871. Treaty of Frankfurt drawn up. Germany annexed Alsace and Lorraine, imposed a high war indemnity on France and occupied northern territory until indemnity paid.
Boer Wars	1880 - 1881, 1899 - 1902	Wars fought by Britain for the mastery of South Africa. British had made several attempts to re-incorporate the Boers into a South African confederation. First war ended with defeat of British at Majuba Hill and the signing of the Pretoria and London conventions in 1881 and 1884. Second Boer War can be divided into three phases - series of Boer successes, counter-offensives by British which captured Pretoria, period of guerilla warfare. Boers effectively won the peace. Retained control of 'native affairs', won back representative government in 1907 and federated South Africa on their own terms (1910). Nevertheless, British interests in South Africa remained protected.
World War I	1914 - 1918	Origins lay in reactions of other great powers to ambitions of German Empire. The political tensions divided Europe into two camps - the Triple Alliance (Britain, France, and Russia) and the Triple Entente (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy). Catalyst to war was the assassination of heir to Habsburg throne, Franz Ferdinand, in Bosnia. Austria declared war on Serbia. Germany then declared war on Russia and France and invaded neutral Belgium. This brought the British into the war on the side of the French. Japan joined Britain as did Italy in 1915. Germany was joined by Turkey (1914) and Bulgaria (1915). Military campaigns center on france and Belgium in W Europe. First battle of Ypres prevented the Germans from reaching the ports. By end of 1914 static line of defence had been established from Belgian coast to Switzerland. Position of stalemate reached. 1916 allies launched offensive for the W front but stopped by Germans who attacked French at Verdun. To relieve situation Battle of the Somme was launched but proved indecisive. Spring 1918 Germany launched major offensive on West but was driven back by the allies with help from USA. By November armistice was signed with allies having recaptured Belgium and nearly all French territory. Treaty of Versailles drawn up 1919 assigning responsibility for causing war to Germany and establishing her liability for reparations payments. Germany lost all overseas territories and considerable territory in Poland. Rhineland demilitarized and occupied by allied forces. Germany called treaty a 'Diktat' and its harshness was bitterly resented throughout the interwar years.
Spanish Civil War	1936 - 1939	Republicans - Nationalists (led by General Franco). Both sides attracted foreign assistance; Republic from the USSR and the International Brigades and the Nationalists from Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. Nationalist victory due to balance of foreign aid, to nonintervention on part of the Western democracies and to greater internal unity in the Nationalist army under Franco.
World War II	1939 - 1945	Allies (Britain and British Commonwealth, China, France, USA, USSR) - Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan). Origins lay in three different conflicts which merged after 1941: Germany's desire for expansion, Japan's struggle against China, conflict between Japanese and US interests in the Pacific. War in Europe caused by German unwillingness to accept Treaty of Versailles, which was systematically dismantled aided by the allied policy of appeasement. Increased German agression finally resulted in the invasion of Czechoslovakia, after which Britain and France abandoned policy of appeasement and pledged support to Poland which was now threatened. Germany signed alliance with Russia and invaded Poland. Britain and France then declared war on Germany. Little fighting took place but Germany proceeded to occupy Norway and Denmark. German Blitzkrieg tactics (a combination of tank warfare and air power) brought about the surrender of Holland in four days, Belgium in three weeks, and France in seven weeks. After failed attempt to gain air supremacy over Britain (Battle of Britain) the invasion of Britain was postponed. Germany then moved east into Greece and Yugoslavia. British military efforts were concentrated against Italy in Mediterranean and N Africa. Allied forces finally ejected German and Italian forces in mid-1943, invaded Sicily and Italy itself and forced Italy to make a separate peace. June 1941 Germany invaded her ally Russia and advanced towards Moscow, Leningrad, and the Volga. After two years of occupation and the Battle of Stalingrad in winter 1942-3 (a major turning point in the allied campaign) they were driven out. Allies launched a second front through invasion of Normandy and Paris was liberated in August. Allies advanced into Germany and linked with the Russians on the River Elbe. Germans surrendered unconditionally at Rheims 7 May 1945. Japan's desire for expansion led to her attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, and US declared war on Japan next day (8 Dec 1941). In reply, Germany and Italy declared war on US. Not until June 1942 did naval victories halt Japanese advance. Fighting continued until 1945 when US dropped two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (6 and 9 Aug). Japan then surrendered.

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Last updated: 2005-01-17